AP Biology Final review

contain carbon; examples include lipids, proteins, and carbs

amino (NH2), carbonyl (RCOR), carboxyl (COOH), hydroxyl (OH), phosphate (PO4), sulfhydryl (SH)

glycerol and three fatty acids

bad for you; animals and some plants have it; solidifies at room temp.

better for you, plants have it; liquifies at room temp.

lipids whose structures resemble chicken-wire fence. include cholesterol and sex hormones

glycerol + 2 fatty acids + 1 phosphate group; makes up membrane bilayers of cells; hydrophobic interiors and hydrophillic exteriors

used by cells for energy and stucture; monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose), storage polysaccharides (starch [plants], glycogen [animals]), structural polysaccharides (chitin [fungi], cellulose [arthropods])

made with the help of ribosomes out of amino acids; serve many functions (transport, enzymes, cell signals, receptor molecules, structural components, and channels)

catalytic proteins that react in an induced-fit fashion with substrates to speed up that rate of reactions by lowering the activation energy

inhibitor resembles substrate and binds to active site

inhibitor binds elsewhere on the enzyme; alters active site so that the substrate cannot bind

logarithmic scale; <7 acidic, 7 neutral, >7 basic (alkaline); 4 is 10 times more acidic than 5

breaks down compounds by adding water

two components brought together, producing H2O

reaction that requires input of energy

reaction that gives off energy

electron transfer reactions

found in prokaryotes and plant cells eukaryotes; protects and shapes the cell

found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; regulates what substances enter and leave a cell

found in prokaryotes and eukaryotes; host for protein synthesis; form in nucleolus

found in eukaryotes; lipid synthesis, detoxification, carbohydrate metabolism; contains no ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

found in eukaryotes; synthesizes proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

found in eukaryotes; modifies lipids, proteins to secrete or send to plasma membrane; contains ribosomes on cytoplasmic surface

found in eukaryotes; power plant of cell; hosts major energy-producing steps of respiration

found in eukaryotes; contains enzymes that digest organic compounds; serves as cell's stomach

found in eukaryotes; control center of cell; host for transcription, replication, and DNA

found in eukaryotes; breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol

found in plant cells eukaryotes; site of photosynthesis in plants

found in eukaryotes; skeleton of cell; consists of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments

large in plant cells and small in animal cells; storage vaults of cells

found in animal cells eukaryote; part of microtubule separation apparatus that assits cell division in animal cells

plasma membrane is selectively permeable phosolipid bilayer with proteins of various lengths and sizes interspersed with cholesterol amoung the phospholipids

proteins implanted within lipid bilayer of plasma membrane

passive movement of substances down their concentration gradient (from high to low concentrations)

passive movement of water from the side of low solute concentration to the side of high solute concentration

assisted transport of particles across membrane (no energy input)

movement of substances against concentration gradient (low to high concentrations; requires energy input)

phagocytosis of particles into cell through the use of vesicles

process by which particles are ejected from the cell, similar to movement in a trash chute

glycolysis -> krebs cycle -> oxidative phosphorylation -> 36 ATP per glucose molecule

glycolysis -> regenerate NAD+ -> 2 ATP per glucose molecule

conversion of 1 glucose molecule into 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, and 2 NADH; occurs in the cytoplasma, and in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration; must have NAD+ to proceed

conversion 1 pyruvate molecule into 4 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP, H2O, and CO2; occurs twice for each glucose to yeild double the products above; occurs in the mitochondria

production of large amounts of ATP from NADH and FADH2; occurs in the mitochrondria; requires the presence of oxygen to proceed

coupling of the movement of electrons down the ETC with the formation of ATP using the driving force provided by the proton gradient; occurs in both cell respiration and photosynthesis to produce ATP

enzyme responsible for using protons to actually produce ATP from ADP

process that regenerates NAD+ so glycolsis can begin again; occurs in absence of oxygen

occurs in fungi, yeast, and bacteria; causes conversion of pyruvate to ethanol

occurs in humans and animal muscles; causes conversion of pyruvate -> lactate; causes cramping sensation when oxygen runs low in muscles

process by which plants use the energy from light to generate sugar; occurs in chloroplasts; light reactions (thylakoid), and Calvin cycle (stroma)

self-nourishing organism that is also known as a producer (plants)

organisms that must consume other organisms to obtain energy--consmers

loss of water via evaporation through the stomata

process by which ATP is made during light reactions

process by which water is split into hydrogen ions and oxygen atoms (light reactions)

structure through which CO2 enters a plant, and water vapor and oxygen leave plant

molcule that absorbs light of a particular wavelength (chlorophyll, carotenoid, phycobilins)

plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions

process that first converts CO2 into a 4-carbon molcule in the mesophyll cells, converts that product to malate and then shuttles it to the bundle sheath cells, where the malate releases CO2 and rubisco picks it up as if all were normal

plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis

prokaryotic cell division; double the DNA, double the size, then split apart

growth 1 -> synthesis -> growth 2 -> mitosis

physical separation of newly formed daughter cells of cell division

growth factors, checkpoints, density-dependent inhibition, and cyclins and protein kinases

factors then when present, promote growth, and when absent, impede growth

a cell stops growing to make sure it has the nutrients and raw materials to proceed

cell stops growing when certain density is reached

cyclin combines with CDK to form a structure known as MPF that pushes cell into mitosis when enough is present

one copy of each chromosome

two copies of each chromosome

chromosomes that are similar in shape, size, and function

the process of male gamete formation (four sperm from one cell)

the process of female gamete formation (one ovum from each cell)

sequences of events that make up the reproductive cycle of an organism

zygote (2n) -> multicellular orgainsm (2n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

zygote (2n) -> multicellular orgainsm (n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

zygote (2n) -> sporophyte (2n) -> spores (n) -> gametophyte (n) -> gametes (n) -> zygote (2n)

crossover, 2^n possible gametes that can be formed, random pairing of gametes

heritable feature, such as flower color

cross involving one character (3:1 phenotype ratio)

cross involving two different characters (9:3:3:1 phenotype ratio)

the two alleles for a trait separate during the formation of gametes--one to each gamete

inheritance of one trait does not interfere with the inheritance of another trait

if two opposite pure-breeding varieties are crossed, all offspring resemble dominant parent

heterozygous individual shows characterstics unlike either parent

Yy produces a intermediate phenotype between YY and yy

both alleles express themselves fully in a Yy individual

traits that are affected by more then one gene (eye color or skin color)

traits that correspond to more than two alleles

a gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at another locus

a single gene has multiple effects on an organism

males are XY, females are XX

chromosome not involved in gender

passed along the X chromosome; more common in males then females

one of two X chromosomes is randomly inactivated and remains coiled as a Barr body

trait that is inherited via the Y chromosome

genes that lie along the same chromsome and do not follow the law of independent assortment

a form of genetic recombination that occurs during prophase I of meiosis

genetic map put together using crossover frequencies